These resources explore the meaning of Jesus' death, from the understanding of the Protestant traditions.  Jesus is God's way of undoing human evil, in a personal, loving way.  His death was the climax of his victorious struggle over the corruption in his own human nature. We call this "Medical Substitution," although it has gone by other names.

Theopedia, Definite Atonement (Theopedia)  The companion doctrine to penal substitution, which we critique.

Book of Common Prayer. 1549, 1552, 1559, 1604, 1662, 1979.

Almighty God, who hast given us thy only-begotten Son to take our nature upon him and as at this time to be born of a pure virgin: Grant that we, being regenerate and made thy children by adoption and grace, may daily be renewed by thy Holy Spirit; through the same our Lord Jesus Christ, who liveth and reigneth with thee and the same Spirit ever, one God, world without end. Amen. (The Collects, Traditional | The Nativity of Our Lord: Christmas Day)

Almighty and everliving God, in your tender love for the human race you sent your Son our Savior Jesus Christ to take upon him our nature, and to suffer death upon the cross, giving us the example of his great humility: Mercifully grant that we may walk in the way of his suffering, and also share in his resurrection; through Jesus Christ our Lord, who lives and reigns with you and the Holy Spirit, one God, for ever and ever. Amen. (The Collects, Contemporary | The Nativity of Our Lord: Christmas Day)

O God, who didst wonderfully create, and yet more wonderfully restore, the dignity of human nature: Grant that we may share the divine life of him who humbled himself to share our humanity, thy Son Jesus Christ; who liveth and reigneth with thee, in the unity of the Holy Spirit, one God, for ever and ever. Amen. (The Collects, Traditional | Second Sunday after Christmas Day)

O God, who wonderfully created, and yet more wonderfully restored, the dignity of human nature: Grant that we may share the divine life of him who humbled himself to share our humanity, your Son Jesus Christ; who lives and reigns with you, in the unity of the Holy Spirit, one God, for ever and ever. Amen. (The Collects, Contemporary | Second Sunday after Christmas Day)

Almighty and everlasting God, you hate nothing you have made and forgive the sins of all who are penitent: Create and make in us new and contrite hearts, that we, worthily lamenting our sins and acknowledging our wretchedness, may obtain of you, the God of all mercy, perfect remission and forgiveness; through Jesus Christ our Lord, who lives and reigns with you and the Holy Spirit, one God, for ever and ever. Amen. (The Collects, Contemporary | Ash Wednesday)

Almighty God, whose blessed Son was led by the Spirit to be tempted of Satan: Make speed to help thy servants who are assaulted by manifold temptations; and, as thou knowest their several infirmities, let each one find thee mighty to save; through Jesus Christ thy Son our Lord, who liveth and reigneth with thee and the Holy Spirit, one God, now and for ever. Amen. (The Collects, Traditional | First Sunday in Lent)

Almighty God, whose blessed Son was led by the Spirit to be tempted by Satan: Come quickly to help us who are assaulted by many temptations; and, as you know the weaknesses of each of us, let each one find you mighty to save; through Jesus Christ your Son our Lord, who lives and reigns with you and the Holy Spirit, one God, now and for ever. Amen. (The Collects, Contemporary | First Sunday in Lent)

Almighty and everlasting God, who, of thy tender love towards mankind, hast sent thy Son our Savior Jesus Christ to take upon him our flesh, and to suffer death upon the cross, that all mankind should follow the example of his great humility: Mercifully grant that we may both follow the example of his patience, and also be made partakers of his resurrection; through the same Jesus Christ our Lord, who liveth and reigneth with thee and the Holy Spirit, one God, for ever and ever. Amen. (The Collects, Traditional | Sunday of the Passion: Palm Sunday)

Almighty and everliving God, in your tender love for the human race you sent your Son our Savior Jesus Christ to take upon him our nature, and to suffer death upon the cross, giving us the example of his great humility: Mercifully grant that we may walk in the way of his suffering, and also share in his resurrection; through Jesus Christ our Lord, who lives and reigns with you and the Holy Spirit, one God, for ever and ever. Amen. (The Collects, Contemporary | Sunday of the Passion: Palm Sunday)

John McLeod Campbell, The Nature of the Atonement. Manchester University Press, Public Domain | Google Book, 1856.

Henry Nutcombe Oxenham, The Catholic Doctrine of the Atonement. 1865; free ebook.

George MacDonald, "Justice", from Unspoken Sermons, Series Three. Christian Classics Ethereal Library, 1885.

Laurence William Grensted, A Short History of the Doctrine of the Atonement. 1920; google book.

David Smith, The Atonement in the Light of History and the Modern Spirit. 1923; free ebook.

Gustav Aulen, Christus Victor: A Historical Study of the Three Main Types of the Idea of Atonement. Wipf and Stock Publishing | Amazon page, 1930.  A helpful introduction, but Aulen oversimplifies patristic atonement down to “ransom,” and then develops inconsistencies by trying to reconcile penal substitution with what he calls the "dramatic view." Ben Myers, Atonement and the Image of God. Biola University, Feb 3, 2015. A 54 minute lecture with 35 minutes of Q&A. Myers helpfully critiques Gustav Aulen and shows where he misunderstood the patristic passages upon which he drew. Myers bases his observations on the communication of attributes between divine and human natures in the Incarnation.

C.S. Lewis, Mere Christianity. Harper San Francisco | Amaon page, 1942 – 44).  In chapter 4, “The Perfect Pentient,” Lewis calls penal substitution "a silly theory"

D.M. Baillie, God Was in Christ. Faber and Faber | Amazon page, 1948.

Karl Barth, Church Dogmatics I/2. 1961. "There must be no weakening or obscuring of the saving truth that the nature which God assumed in Christ is identical with our nature as we see it in the light of the Fall"

Karl Barth, Church Dogmatics IV/2 and IV/3. 1961.

P.P. Waldenstrom, Be Ye Reconciled to God. 1963. pdf file.

Leander Keck, The Law and "the Law of Sin and Death" (pdf file) edited by James L. Crenshaw and Samuel Sandmel, The Divine Helmsman. Ktav | Amazon page, 1980.  Keck gives a very good treatment of Romans 8:1 - 4.  "Had the Son not participated in this kind of flesh, the "condemnation" would not have been liberating; it could only have exposed even more powerfully the human dilemma, so that the net result of knowing about such a Son would, like hearing the law, have only made one conscious of sin (3:20).  This formulation of the radical identification of the Son with the full depths of the human condition is similar to that of 2 Cor.5:21..."

Roberta Bondi, To Love as God Loves: Conversations with the Early Church. Fortress Press | Amazon page, Sep 1, 1987.

Thomas F. Torrance, The Distinctive Character of the Reformed Faith. University of Dubuque Theologial Seminary, Oct 6, 1988.  Lecture.  pdf file.

Trevor A. Hart, Christ in our Place: The Humanity of God in Christ for the Reconciliation of the World: Essays presented to James Torrance. Wipf and Stock Publishers | Amazon page, Jan 1, 1989.

Christian D. Kettler, The Vicarious Humanity of Christ and the Reality of Salvation. Wipf and Stock Publishers | Amazon page, Feb 28, 1991.

Thomas F. Torrance, The Mediation of Christ. Helmers and Howard Publishers | Amazon page, Jul 1, 1992.

"Judgment" from Dictionary of Paul and His Letters. IV Press, 1993. and Dictionary of Jesus and the Gospels. InterVarsity Press, 1992; pdf file.

"Wrath" from Dictionary of Paul and His Letters. InterVarsity Press, 1993; pdf file. identifies God's wrath as an activity, not an attribute

"Expiation, Propitiation, Mercy Seat" from Dictionary of Paul and His Letters. InterVarsity Press, 1993; pdf file. interprets "hilasterion" as "mercy seat" and not as "propitiation"

"Righteousness" from Dictionary of Paul and His Letters. InterVarsity Press, 1993; pdf file.

Roberta Bondi, Memories of God: Theological Reflections on a Life. Abingdon Press | Amazon page, 1995. has an excellent chapter discussing atonement "Out of the Green Tiled Bathroom". pdf file.

Donald Bloesch, Jesus Christ. InterVarsity Press | Amazon page, 1997.

Carl E. Braaten and Robert W. Jensen, Union with Christ: The New Finnish Interpretation of Luther. Eerdmans | Amazon page, 1998.

Kelly M. Kapic, The Son's Assumption of a Human Nature: A Call for Clarity. International Journal of Systematic Theology, Jul 2001.

Christopher D. Marshall, Beyond Retribution: A New Testament Vision for Justice, Crime, and Punishment. Eerdmans | Amazon page, 2001.

Christopher D. Marshall, Atonement, Violence, and the Will of God: A Sympathetic Response to J. Denny Weaver's The Non-Violent Atonement. Mennonite Quarterly Review, Jan 2003.

Richard D. Nelson, He Offered Himself: Sacrifice in Hebrews. Interpretation; Jul 2003.

Colin Gunton, The Actuality of Atonement: A Study of Metaphor, Rationality, and the Christian Tradition. T&T Clark | Amazon page, Dec 2003.

Stephen Finlan, The Background and Contents of Paul's Cultic Atonement Metaphors. pdf book, Sep 2004.  Finlan argues for both propitiation and expiation.

Richard H. Anderson, Cultic Atonement Metaphors. Kratistos Theophilus blog, Aug 2005.  Another review of Stephen Finlan, with comments on Loren Rosson.

Christian D. Kettler, The God Who Believes: Faith, Doubt, and the Vicarious Humanity of Christ. Wipf and Stock Publishers | Amazon page, Sep 1, 2005.

Loren Rosson, The Historical Lamb. Jesus and His Death blog, Nov 9, 2005. A review of Scot McKnight's book Jesus and His Death and Stephen Finlan; see also here

Jeannine Graham, Representation and Substitution in the Atonement Theologies of Dorothee Sölle, John Macquarrie, and Karl Barth. Peter Lang Inc. | Amazon page, 2005.

Alister E. McGrath, Iustitia Dei: A History of the Christian Doctrine of Justification. Cambridge University Press | Amazon page, 4th edition 2020. See also pdf book.

C. Baxter Kruger, Jesus and the Undoing of Adam. Perichoresis | Amazon page, 2007.

Trevin Wax, Don't Tell Me N.T. Wright Denies "Penal Substitution". The Gospel Coalition, Apr 24, 2007.  Examines a good sampling of passages but both Trevin Wax, especially, and even N.T. Wright might be questioned further for consistency.

Jason Goroncy, 'The Wondrous Cross: Atonement and Penal Substitution in the Bible and History': A Review. Jason Goroncy blog, Jan 8, 2008.

Our God is a Consuming Fire. God's Character, Jun 10, 2008.  A helpful list of Scriptures regarding God as fire, with comments

Ian A. McFarland, Fallen or Unfallen? International Journal of Systematic Theology, Oct 2008.

Thomas F. Torrance, Incarnation: The Person and Life of Christ. InterVarsity Press | Amazon page, 2008.  A masterpiece.  Volume Two is Thomas F. Torrance, Atonement. InterVarsity Press | Amazon page, 2009.  Is not as concise as Volume One, and less well organized.

Peter Martens, The Quest for an Anabaptist Atonement: Violence and Nonviolence in J. Denny Weaver’s The Nonviolent Atonement. Mennonite Quarterly Review, April 2008.

Matthew Baker, "The Place of St. Irenaeus of Lyon in Historical and Dogmatic Theology According to Thomas F. Torrance". Participatio: The Journal of the Thomas F. Torrance Theological Fellowship. Volume 2, 2010.

Jeff McSwain, Young Life and the Gospel of All-Along Belonging. The Other Journal, Jan 6, 2010.

Christian D. Kettler, The God Who Rejoices: Joy, Despair, and the Vicarious Humanity of Christ. Cascade Books, Wipf and Stock Publishers | Amazon page, Jun 1, 2010.

Ken Pulliam, Index of Posts About Penal Substitution Theory. Former Fundy blog, Jul 17, 2010.  PSA contributed to his de-conversion.

Derek Flood, Substitutionary Atonement and the Church Fathers: A Reply to the Authors of Pierced for Our Transgressions. Evangelical Quarterly, 2010. pdf article.

Derek Flood, Penal Substitution vs. Christus Victor. The Rebel God, pdf article.

Mark Thompson and the Sydney Synod, Penal Substitutionary Atonement. Sydney Doctrine Commission, Aug 24, 2010.  A good explanation of PSA.

Thomas Jay Oord, John Wesley: Theologian of Love.  Thomas Jay Oord, August 9, 2011.  “Wesley appeals to the supremacy of love more often and more insightfully than most theologians. He considers love God’s reigning attribute, and he understands divine power in light of love. Wesley often engages the Christian practices with issues of love front and center. He laces his moral and ethical directives with love language, because love is the heart of true religion.”

J.R. Woodward, A Missional View of the Doctrine of Election. JR Woodward blog, Jun 23, 2011 | Amazon page, Dec 29, 2011. 

Darrin Snyder-Belousek, Atonement, Justice, and Peace: The Message of the Cross and the Mission of the Church. Eerdmans | Amazon page, Dec 2011.  This is a comprehensive book that I wished I had the time to write; it is the single best resource dismantling the exegesis of penal substitution, although it is less clear on how exactly to read the relevant biblical passages.  See also review by Stephen D. Morrison, The Book to End Penal Substitution. Stephen D. Morrison blog.  

Joshua, Dietrich Bonhoeffer's Christology: For Me. Theologians Inc blog, Feb 24, 2012. note Bonhoeffer's use of "new humanity" and universal atonement

Thomas H. McCall, Forsaken: The Trinity, the Cross, and Why It Matters. Eerdmans | Amazon page, 2012.  See also review by Ted Johnston. Surprising God blog, Apr 18, 2012.

Oliver Crisp, By His Birth We Are Healed. Christianity Today, Apr 9, 2012.

Morgan Guyton, 4 Cringe-worthy Claims of Popular Penal Substitution Theology. Huffington Post, Jul 2, 2012.  Fun, short read for a popular audience.

John Milbank, Are the New Evangelicals a New Phenomenon or a Reversion to Type? The Immanent Frame blog, Jan 18, 2013.

Father George Dion. Dragas, T.F. Torrance - A Theologian For Our Times: An Eastern Orthodox Assessment. Grace Communion International, Feb 23, 2013.

David Moffitt, Atonement and the Logic of Resurrection in the Epistle to the Hebrews. Brill Academic Press | Amazon page, July 2013. Moffitt focuses on the resurrection of Jesus and the ongoing mediator role that Jesus fills in the model of a Levitical sacrifice. Moffitt also argues that 1 John 1 argues for Jesus as our ongoing mediator, which requires our confession — see 73 minute podcast interview by Erin Heim, David Moffitt – Rethinking the Atonement. On Script, Jun 1, 2023. See David M. Moffitt, Rethinking the Atonement: New Perspectives on Jesus's Death, Resurrection, and Ascension. Baker Academic | Amazon page, Nov 2022.

Kevin Chiarot, The Unassumed is the Unhealed: The Humanity of Christ in the Christology of T.F. Torrance. Wipf and Stock Publishers | Amazon page, Sep 24, 2013. challenges T.F. Torrance in an attempt to defend penal substitution

David Kowalick, All about Glory: Where Hope and Meaning Meet. Godwit Media | Amazon page, Sep 2013. “In reality, the crucifixion was the grand finale of a perfect human life — the only perfect life ever lived. When an athlete triumphantly breaks the tape at the end of a marathon, it’s not only the final stride that counts. That moment of triumph is dependent on every single step from start to finish. In the same way, every second of Jesus’ life — from two cells in the womb of Mary all the way to final breath on the cross — is a vital link of an unbroken chain of faithfulness to the Father that is vital to the resurrection. The cross is that final step, the last link, the ultimate and deepest descent into the fallen human condition. There’s no particle in all the possibility of humanity that Jesus has not penetrated and then permeated with his faithfulness to the Father. By the Holy Spirit, Jesus has taken his connection to the Father into the furthest reaches of sin and death; no matter how deep the soul of any human being has descended into darkness, Jesus has gone deeper still.”

Brad Jersak, The Gospel in Chairs. Jesus Exclusive Savior, Oct 24, 2013. A short video.

Martin M. Davis, Ontological Healing vs. Traditional Views of Atonement. God for Us! blog, Dec 12, 2013.

Carl Mosser, ‘An Exotic Flower? Calvin and the Doctrine of Deification,’ edited by Michael Parsons, Reformation Faith: Exegesis and Theology in the Protestant Reformation. 2014, chapter 4. Academia.edu, 2014.

Paul Rezkalla, If All Religions Are True, Then God is Cruel. Gospel Coalition blog, Mar 25, 2014.  An example of penal substitution; the "bridge operator" analogy in the context of interfaith dialogue; I would not endorse this approach.

Steve McVey, Beyond an Angry God: You Can't Imagine How Much God Loves You. Harvest House Publishers | Amazon page, Aug 1, 2014.  See also Steve McVey, What Is God's Wrath. GCI You're Included.  McVey discusses God's wrath as an activity, not an attribute, of God - because God is love, His wrath must be understood in light of His love.

Neil Carter, Anti-Humanism: How Evangelicalism Taught Me the Art of Self-Loathing. Patheos blog, Nov 3, 2014.

Richard Beck, When God Became the Devil. Experimental Theology blog, Nov 20, 2014.  See also the comments

Greg Boyd, The Danger of the Penal Substitution View of the Atonement. ReKnew, Nov 20, 2014.

Michael Gorman, "Paul's Corporate, Cruciform, Missional Theosis in 2 Corinthians," edited by Thate, Vanhoozer, and Campbell, "In Christ" in Paul. pdf book, Dec 1, 2014. is an excellent treatment of 2 Corinthians 5:21 and 8:1 - 9:15 which shows that in Paul, participation is central, not justification, which helps dismantle penal substitution.

Ben Myers, Atonement and the Image of God. Biola University, Feb 3, 2015. A 54 minute lecture with 35 minutes of Q&A. Myers helpfully critiques Gustav Aulen and shows where he misunderstood the patristic passages upon which he drew. Myers bases his observations on the communication of attributes between divine and human natures in the Incarnation.

Douglas Campbell and Douglas J. Moo, Paul on Justification: Is the Lutheran Approach to Pauline Justification Justified? Trinity Evangelical Divinity School, Feb 12, 2015.

Philip Jensen, Anglican Evangelicalism. Preaching Matters, St. Helen's Bishopsgate, Mar 2, 2015. comments on the prayer book of Thomas Cranmer, the reliance on John Calvin, and the limits thereof; the difference between Calvin as biblical commentator. influenced by John Chrysostom and modern Calvinists (who rely on a simplified version of Calvin's Institutes).

George Hunsinger, What Christ Did Was Effective for All. Grace Communion International video.

Cherith Fee Nordling, What Jesus' Humanity Means for Us. Grace Communion International video.

Nadia Bolz Weber, Sara Miles, A Devastating Good Friday Sermon. Patheos blog, Apr 4, 2015.

Scot McKnight, Theology of Holy Saturday. Patheos blog, Apr 4, 2015.

Bradley Jersak, A More Christlike God: A More Beautiful Gospel. Plain Truth Ministries | Amazon page, Apr 21, 2015.

Bruce Wauchope, The Gospel and Mental Health Sample. Trinity in You blog.

J.R. Daniel Kirk, Why is Jesus Human? Storied Theology blog, May 19, 2015.

Chris Mooney, The Surprising Links Between Faith and Evolution and Climate Denial - Charted. New York Times, May 20, 2015.  Interesting as I think the principle of meritocratic-retributive justice standing behind penal substitution is also an influence.

Charlie Baber, Atonement Theories of Relativity. Wesley Brothers, Jul 21, 2015.

Greg Boyd, Why Did Jesus Die on the Cross? ReKnew blog, Jul 28, 2015.

Jason Robert Radcliffe, Thomas F. Torrance and the Church Fathers: A Reformed, Evangelical and Ecumenical Reconstruction of the Patristic Tradition. Themelios, Aug 2015.

Ben Myers, Five Short Videos on Atonement Theology. Faith and Theology blog, Sep 8, 2015.

George MacDonald, Divine Justice. Works of George MacDonald, Oct 11, 2015.

George MacDonald, Justice. Works of George MacDonald, Oct 15, 2015. "God is not bound to punish sin. He is bound to destroy it..."

Alvin Rapien, Interviewing Ikons: Ben Myers. The Poor in Spirit blog, Oct 15, 2015. Dr. Myers, Lecturer in Systematic Theology at United Theological College, in Australia, gives a short and sweet description of patristic theology on Christ, atonement, and hell.  See also Ben Myers, Atonement - Jesus' Death. Objective Bob, Sep 30, 2015.  On Athanasius' understanding

Benjamin Myers, The Patristic Atonement Model. pdf file., a chapter from Oliver D. Crisp and Fred Sanders, editors, Locating Atonement: Explorations in Constructive Dogmatics. Zondervan | Amazon page, Nov 11, 2015.

C. Baxter Kruger, A New Relationship. Early Church Faith, Feb 20, 2017.  Kruger gave a sermon on John 17:22 – 26 at Saint George’s Church in Leeds, UK.

Tom Belt, A Cry of Dereliction? An Open Orthodoxy blog, Dec 9, 2015.

Greg Boyd, Ten Problems with the Penal Substitution View of the Atonement. ReKnew blog, Dec 10, 2015.

Myk Habets, The Fallen Humanity of Christ: A Pneumatological Clarification of the Theology of T.F. Torrance. Participatio: The Journal of the T.F. Torrance Theological Fellowship, Vol.5, 2015.

Benjamin L. Corey, Old Testament Law: The Accuser Christ Defeated on the Cross. Patheos, Mar 18, 2016. intriguing, though I disagree with his understanding of the Jewish law

Religion to Reason, If Man Forgave Like God: Penal Substitution Atonement Theory. Religion to Reason, Aug 9, 2016.  A 5 minute video, humorous and raises good points.

Dan Cameron, Flesh and Blood: Clarifying Questions About Christ’s Human Nature. Daniel J. Cameron blog, Apr 4, 2016.

Brian Zahnd, The Faceless White Giant. Brian Zahnd, Jun 1, 2016.

Greg Boyd, The Incarnation: More Than a Rescue Mission. ReKnew, Jul 2016.

Jonathan Kleis, When Orthodoxy Becomes Innovation. Reformissio, Aug 27, 2016.

Jonathan Kleis, Are There Two Wills in God? Reformissio, Aug 28, 2016.

Ted Johnston, Was Jesus’ Human Nature Like Ours? The Surprising God blog, Aug 28, 2016.  A series of five blog posts on T.F. Torrance’s teaching on the humanity of Jesus.

Bobby Grow, In Response to Kevin J. Vanhoozer's Critique of Evangelical Calvinism: No We Don't Hold to the Physical Theory of Atonement. Evangelical Calvinism, Sep 24, 2016.  Worth noting as an ongoing discussion; but may or may not represent the "physical theory" accurately, and Vanhoozer misrepresents Irenaeus.

Daniel J. Cameron, Flesh and Blood: A Dogmatic Sketch Concerning the Fallen Nature View of Christ's Human Nature. Wipf and Stock | Amazon page, Oct 12, 2016. a short and concise explanation of how Jesus could bear a fallen human nature but be sinless as a person; analysis rests on the language of the ecumenical councils

Wondering Eagle, Cru Winter Conference Review 2016-2017: David Platt, Matt Smethurst, Jackson Crum and J.D. Grear are Some of the Main Speakers. Wondering Eagle blog, Dec 19, 2016.

International House of Prayer, Atonement Debate - Dr. Michael Brown vs Brian Zahnd - Monster God or Monster Man. International House of Prayer, Dec 19, 2016.

Bobby Grow, Athanasius and T.F. Torrance Condra Mundum, Against the World of Classical Calvinist Forensic Conception of the Atonement. Evangelical Calvinist, Jan 9, 2017.

NT Wright, Why I Reject the Idea of an Angry God. Premier Christianity, Feb 22, 2017. a 2 minute video

Bobby Grow, The Holy Spirit in the Theology of T.F. Torrance: The Holy Spirit 'Accommodates' the Ineffable God Through the Son, Jesus Christ. Evangelical Calvinist, Apr 1, 2017.

Dishon Mills, Did We Divide God? Grace Christian Church, Apr 3, 2017. Dishon's Good Friday message.

Gary Deddo, Clarifying Two Key Terms: "All Are Included" and "Union with Christ". GCI Equipper, Apr 3, 2017. distinguishes between universal reconciliation and personal, particular, union with Christ

Relevant Magazine, N.T. Wright Explains How Easter Changed Everything. Relevant Magazine, Apr 14, 2017. "It’s better to believe [penal substitution] than to believe nothing. But it’s simply not the way that the Bible itself tells the story."

Gary Deddo, Union with Christ, Christ's Vicarious Humanity and the Holy Spirit's Ministry. GCI Equipper, May 1, 2017. on how to use the term "union with Christ" for believers only

Christian D. Kettler, The Breadth and Depth of Atonement: The Vicarious Humanity of Christ in the Church, the World, and the Self. Wipf and Stock Publishers | Amazon page, May 11 2017.

Gary Deddo, The Holy Spirit's Ministry, the Christian Life, Believers and Non-Believers. GCI Equipper, Jun 1, 2017. practical implications of why "union with Christ" is not identical with the hypostatic union

Brian Zahnd, Response to Derek Rishmawy’s Critique of Sinners in the Hands of a Loving God. Luke Norsworthy blog, Sep 5, 2017.

N.T. Wright, The Cross. Wheaton College, Oct 11, 2017. an hour video; at the 34 minute mark lists three major and interrelated mistakes of Western Christianity; see especially the third, “we have paganized our soteriology,” where Wright also criticizes the worship song, In Christ Alone, for saying, “And on that cross, as Jesus died, the wrath of God was satisfied.”

Third, we have paganized our soteriology.  What do I mean?  At this point, we have to be very, very careful.  There are many preachers and theologians who have seen this danger coming, and have taken steps to ward it off.  Indeed, very few preachers or teachers would admit to teaching what I am now going to admit is a major failure in the Western tradition.  But I am concerned here with the message that thousands upon thousands think they are being taught because actually it follows directly from the platonized eschatology and moralized anthropology.  Many people -- not least many young people -- in our churches, or who were once in our churches really do believe that the Christian gospel teaches that the Creator God was very angry and wanted to lash out and kill us all because we offended Him.  But that somebody happened to stand in the way.  It happened to be His own innocent Son, so that somehow makes it alright.  And that the angry Creator exhausted his wrath on His Son so that everyone else could go free.  

A popular hymn says:  “And on that cross as Jesus died, the wrath of God was satisfied.”  And as with the first mistake, the platonizing one, if you go to the ancient world, looking for people who teach something like that, they’re all over the place:  in the Greek tragedies, in the Roman histories here and there, stories of a malevolent deity who’s got it in for somebody and needs to be placated by the death of an innocent victim so that the expedition may go ahead, so that the winds may blow the right way, whatever it may be.  This is a thoroughly pagan soteriology and it is not taught in the New Testament.  

Now of course, many will protest and say that when the Creator pours out His wrath on His Son, that this was an act of love.  The more tightly you hold and expound a Trinitarian theology, the more obvious this should be:  It is the love of God that is revealed in the death of the Son.  Quite so.  But the structure within which that means what it’s come to mean, pulls away from that, until we are left with an alarming spectacle of a God who says, “I’m doing this because I love you,” but in fact is acting out sheer angry vengeance.  There are all too many people in today’s world, including many young people, who have known human beings who say, “I love you,” but who in fact behave with malice and anger.  And they think, if that’s what God’s like, I don’t want anything to do with Him.

Vapors in the Wind, 10 Reasons Why I Have Rejected Penal Substitution. Vapors in the Wind blog, Apr 3, 2018. very informed, concise. See also Vapors in the Wind, What It Means to Have a Just God. Vapors in the Wind blog, Mar 21, 2018. Although I don’t agree with his use of Jesus against the Old Testament, I affirm his reflection on vengeance as ego-driven and justice as relationally-driven.

Brian Zahnd, Interview with William Paul Young, Author of The Shack and Lies We Believe About God. Apr 29, 2018.

Michael F. Bird, Combining Christus Victor and Penal Substitution. Patheos, May 28, 2018. is a short and unsuccessful attempt at fusing these two atonement theories, based on a misreading of Athanasius; see this blog series on Athanasius.

Brad Jersak, Does God Save Us from God? Clarion Journal for Religion, Justice and Peace, Sep 10, 2018.

Ted Johnston, What Sort of Human Nature Did Jesus Have. The Surprising God blog, Oct 26, 2018.  A helpful short article, with good quotations.  See also Ted Johnston, Atonement: Participation, Not Mere Imputation. The Surprising God blog, Feb 10, 2018. 

Rachael Denhollander, Justice: The Foundation of a Christian Approach to Abuse. Fathom Magazine, Nov 19, 2018.  A helpful paper with a practical purpose; but notice how "unity of operations" in the Trinity make retributive satisfaction and penal substitution impossible - one must go further to medical substitution and divine restorative justice.

Christoffer H. Grundmann, Christ as Physician:  The Ancient Christus Medicus Trope and Christian Medical Missions as Imitation of Christ. Christian Journal for Global Health 5(3):3-11. Nov 2018.

Len Joson, Incarnation, Atonement, and Redemption. Len Joson blog, Jun 24, 2019.

Dr. Jeannine Graham, Jesus’ Exclusive Connection to Human Nature. Grace Communion International, You’re Included Series, Jul 31, 2019.  A video interview.

Daniel J. Cameron, What It Means that Jesus Was ‘Without Sin’. Christianity Today, Dec 5, 2019. “It is central to our faith that Jesus shared our nature. Does that include its fallenness?”

Brad Jersak, The Logic. & Limits. of Christus Victor. Patheos, Dec 1, 2019.

Andrew Springer, A Brief Look at Five Views on The Atonement of Christ.  Andrew Springer | Medium, Apr 12, 2020.  This author seems to accept Gustav Aulen's characterization of the early church atonement view as "ransom."  That is a gross oversimplification, and quite a bad one when exploring the nature of atonement.  The reason we are vulnerable to Satan is not because he is analogous to a gangster, but because of a corruption of sin in our human nature that makes us susceptible to lies and fears, of which he is the functional source.  Thus, Jesus had to overcome the corruption of sin and purify and perfect human nature.  Jesus could not rescue us from Satan without healing our underlying vulnerability. He had to fulfill the responsibility for human nature that Israel, as a medical focus group of sorts, could not.  That is why the "battlefield" logic is located in human nature and Jesus' human journey, and why the "substitution" logic -- with a medical view of human nature and "moral exemplar" in nature, and not exactly Anselm's honor-satisfaction, and certainly not Calvin's penal satisfaction -- undergirds "ransom."  They are quite deeply interconnected.  To separate them like this author does is disrespectful to how the mind of the early Christians actually worked.  Here is my sprawling, ongoing paper on the early church, author by author: Penal vs. Medical Substitution: A Historical Comparison.  Hence, the real critique of penal substitutionary atonement is that (a) it cannot actually be integrated into the other "imagery" and logics of the atonement, and (b) it was rooted in the magisterial Reformers' desire to anchor their retributive justice based political regimes over against the Catholic political powers, since the Reformers were not just starting new religious movements, but new city-states and nation-states as well.

Philip Hess, Penal Substitution on Trial: How Does the Death and Life of Jesus Save Us?. Philip Hess | Amazon page, May 2020.

Michael Stone, Atlanta Megachurch Pastor Calls Slavery ‘Blessing’ – Divine Gift For White People. Patheos, Jun 16, 2020. in fairness, Louie Giglio apologized, but calling past injustice a “blessing” for white people shows that white evangelicals simply cannot accept the emotions of grief, limited and appropriate guilt, and owing a debt as motivation for Christian obedience. Penal substitutionary atonement simply does not allow for those motivations, despite 2 Corinthians 7.

Stephen D. Morrison, Forsaking Penal Substitution, Part 1: A Theological Critique. Stephen D. Morrison | Apr 16, 2021. gives an excellent 40 minute video. He says:

“PSA presupposes a different concept of justice than the one Christ proclaimed. It then reinterprets the gospel according to the law of retribution, rather than according to the love of God revealed in Christ which restores and heals. In other words, PSA presupposes an unchristian concept of justice which is fundamentally at odds with the life and teachings of Jesus Christ. This is the central error of PSA because it informs a conceptual framework, and thus determines its conclusions and taints its reading of Scripture…”

And:

“God is like a surgeon who does not merely stand over us to heal our cancer, but enters into our body, taking up our flesh, and bears away our cancerous and diseased existence, destroying it in his death. He takes the wounds of our sin upon himself, not in some kind of arbitrary punishment to meet a false conception of justice, but because God makes atonement. Because God heals us and saves us from sin. The sacrifice of the cross does not make atonement. Atonement is God’s work and sacrifice is the medium of its proclamation. Christ’s death is not what produces atonement, in other words, but it is the result of God’s atoning work. Atonement is the person -- it is the whole life and work of Jesus Christ. His death puts to death our sin and destroys our diseased existence. Thus, he died because of atonement, not to enact atonement… Divine justice is done here, but it is restorative justice, not retributive justice.”

Stephen D. Morrison, Forsaking Penal Substitution, Part 2 A Biblical Critique. Stephen D. Morrison | Apr 19, 2021.  Examines Romans 3 and how the word “hilasterion” should be translated into English as “expiation” based on what was happening in the Jewish sacrificial system; Isaiah 53 as not necessarily suffering in a substitutionary sense.

Stephen D. Morrison, Forsaking Penal Substitution, Part 3: If Not PSA, Then What? Stephen D. Morrison | Apr 22, 2021.  A short 12 min video, quotes various theologians who have influenced him; Morrison keeps central the person of Jesus Christ as opposed to any particular theory.

Ben Myers, Ancient Christianity and Nonviolent Atonement: Nonviolent Atonement Series. Inverse Podcast, May 11, 2021.

Paul Axton, Did John Calvin Invent Penal Substitution? Forging Ploughshares, May 20, 2021.  Concise and precise.

Jeremy Shuck, Trusting the Father Again. Upper Room Frisco, Jun 13, 2021.  Jeremy’s sermon is excellent.

J.R. Forasteros, The Surprising Theology of Spiderman: No Way Home. Sojourners, Dec 22, 2021.

“This redemptive move is something we’ve rarely seen in our modern superhero epics — until now: Peter Parker insists he can save these villains, give them a second chance by curing them — restoring them to their true selves. The Orthodox Church in America understands salvation not as a legal declaration, but a healing. Drawing on Athanasius’ meditation on the Incarnation, Fr. Stephen Freeman writes, “Sin is not a legal problem because God is not a lawyer. and neither is a priest if he knows his business.. Sin is a death problem. It’s far more like a disease than anything else.” Jesus’ atonement isn’t God killing Jesus to take punishment for our guilt. Rather, giving up God’s own life, God created space for us to be healed. So, too, Peter wants to heal these men of both their ailments and their status as villains. He wants to alter the status quo. No wonder, then, Doctor Strange — the representative of the MCU’s status quo — becomes a villain of the story.”

Joshua R. Farris, Recent Developments in Atonement Theory.  The Logos Academic Blog, February 26, 2022.  

Ted Peters, How Does Jesus Save? Part Five: Penal Substitution.  Progressive Christian | Patheos, Sep 30, 2022.  Peters uses the “non-integrated categories” approach:  including the view that the patristic view of atonement was “ransom from the devil,” and so on.  However, his genealogy of PSA is moderately helpful.

Rene Girard, Are the Gospels Mythical? First Things, Apr 1996.

Wayne Northey, Presentation on Spirituality of Penal Abolition. ICOPA IX, May 2000. a paper on Academia.edu, contains a concise summary of Christian history

Rene Girard, Interview with CBC, Part 1. Offensive Freedom, Jan 26, 2013.  An excellent anthropology of scapegoating.

Rene Girard, Interview with CBC, Part 2. Offensive Freedom, Jan 26, 2013.  Treats Leviticus 16 and the Jewish practice of the scapegoat and atonement; also says the Joseph story is the reversal of the Oedipus story, where Joseph is innocent (Oedipus as scapegoat is guilty) and brings reconciliation (not death and division). In addition, Joseph tests his brothers by making Benjamin a scapegoat, but Judah refuses it and offers himself. The Joseph and Judah story exposes the scapegoating myth.  It is anti-myth.

Rene Girard, Interview with CBC, Part 3. Offensive Freedom, Jan 26, 2013. Explains why non-instinctual desires are imitative, or mimetic, and therefore competitive; explains the biblical story of the fall in Genesis and redemption in the Gospels; why imitating Jesus is non-violent and non-competitive

Richard Feloni, Peter Thiel Explains How an Esoteric Philosophy Book Shaped His Worldview. Business Insider, Nov 10, 2014. Thiel was influenced by Rene Girard

Dania Rodrigues, The Ancient Greeks Sacrificed Ugly People. Atlas Obscura, Oct 30, 2015. part of the cultural backdrop which Christians rejected.

Adam Ericksen, Rene Girard and the Mechanisms of Violence. Christian Transhumanist Podcast, Nov 30, 2015.

Sarah Kaplan, The Darker Link Between Ancient Human Sacrifice and Our Modern World. Washington Post, Apr 5, 2016.

Tyler Graham, Death to the Death Penalty? René Girard’s Challenge to Thomas Aquinas. The Imaginative Conservative, Nov 2018.  An example of humility from conservatives.

Wayne Northey, Presentation on Spirituality of Penal Abolition. ICOPA IX, May 2000.  A paper on Academia.edu, contains a concise summary of Christian history

Paula J. Giddings, Ida: A Sword Among Lions: Ida B. Wells and the Campaign Against Lynching. Amistad | Amazon page, Mar 3, 2009.

Dominique Gilliard, Sunday Lynchings: The Church's Role in Our Nation's Legacy of Racism. Converge Oakland, Feb 27, 2013.

Jamelle Bouie, Christian Soldiers: Lynching and Torture in the Jim Crow South Weren't Just Acts of Racism, but Religious Rituals. Slate, Feb 10, 2015.

Kaia Stern, Voices from American Prisons: Faith, Education, and Healing. Routledge | Amazon page, Jun 10, 2015.  Ch.2 is about the impact of Augustine, Calvin, and penal substitution.

Julie Zauzmer, Christians Are More Than Twice as Likely to Blame a Person's Poverty on Lack of Effort. Washington Post, Aug 3, 2017.  Because white evangelicals believe in penal substitution and therefore believe that God's highest justice is meritocratic-retributive; something Mako commented on in a blog post, Why Penal Substitution is a Gateway Drug to Right Wing Extremism  

Julie Perkins, The Most Dangerous Sermon Ever Preached. Relevant Magazine, Feb 6, 2018. An interview with Brian Zahnd critiquing Jonathan Edwards, Puritan Christianity, and retributive justice.